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Sadtono Ma Chung University Malang, Indonesia the word in question, and the notionalists are those whose judgment on correctness is based on the concept of logicality. The paper will discuss briefly the major problems the non-native speaker has to face in learning vocabulary which the native speaker may not realize. Nonnative learners of English do not only suffer from lexical problems, but also from spelling, pronunciation, and grammar and the four skills, but due to space and time constraints, the paper is focused only on vocabulary, even then the treatment is far from exhaustive.
The sufferings are based on the more than 25 years of learning English as a foreign language. Suggestions as to how to cope with the problems will conclude the paper.
When the plural verb sounds better, do not set off the as well as phrase. Keywords: non-native speaker, sufferings, English vocabulary, confusion Introduction The first twenty five years is the most difficult time to learn a foreign language — said a sage. I have learned English for more than twenty five years and I still have to struggle hard to master vocabulary, perhaps because my language aptitude is low.
Speaking about correctness, there are sentence constructions, for example, which are prescriptively incorrect, but now correct based on corpus linguistics.
Now we do not really know who the authorities are, especially with the emergence of corpus linguistics that suggests that the authority is the majority of users. They are now the majority of English speakers. The problems are confounded by the fact that since , there has been an evolution or revolution? The authorities in English are practically divided into three camps: the prescriptivists, the descriptivists, and the notionalists. The prescriptivists are followers of the Latin-based grammar, the descriptivists are followers of corpus linguistics whose pronouncements of correctness are based on the number of native speakers of English using As a NNS, I find it hard to follow the development in EFL and sometimes I get confused because of the differences in dialects; to make it simple let us take the differences between British English BE and American English AE.
As there are roughly double standards of correctness, the NNS learners get frequently confused, thus their sufferings. Summary of Suffering 1: NNS learners of English suffer from the fact that language changes and they may not know whether or not a vocabulary item is already old-fashioned, and when they use it unknowingly, it would be unacceptable. Suffering 2: Nuances Nuances here refer to the fact that there are slight differences in meaning of synonyms which constitute a headache for NNS.
You should find the test rather easy. It took quite a long time NOT a quite long time. His English is pretty good. Rather is fairly formal but can be used in spoken English, especially in British English. In American English it is more usual to use pretty.
In both American and British English, pretty is more usual in speech than in writing. This is a fairly formal use: You are quite wrong. I quite understand your feelings. The discussion in this paper is concerned with the major problems only due to limited time and space, though other problems are not discussed, they are no less important than the topics currently dealt with.
Suffering 1: The Dynamic Character of Language Virtually all living languages change: new words are always born and some old words die, meaning not used anymore, and some others change their meaning or pronunciation. English, being used all over the world, changes fast, especially because science develops very fast and scientists need to communicate their discovery worldwide using English, they need to label their inventions using words. As a result, they have to create or coin new words, borrow words from other languages, or give a new meaning to old words to name their new inventions.
In addition, society also creates new words, especially the young people, so they invent new words slang or create their own language variety. Even the older generation of native speakers cannot cope with the new lexical items the younger generation has created, let alone the non-native speakers.
Here is an example in Indonesian. English idioms can be divided into seven categories Wilson, Informal idioms — used with friends and family in relaxed situations 2. Formal idioms — serious and polite — used in conversation and formal writing 3. Very informal — very informal or not very polite forms, and they are used between members of social groups 4.
Old-fashioned idioms — still used but they sound oldfashioned 5. Taboo — those idioms are likely to cause offence and never used in formal situations 6. Humorous — idioms intended to make people laugh 7. Literary idioms — more used in literature rather than everyday speech Unfortunately, Wilson did not provide examples of those different categories of idioms. Idioms are another pain in the neck for the NNSs as they simply have to be memorized because there is no rule governing them.
Another problem idioms create is that some of them are archaic and some NS writers of composition dissuade NNSs from using them. Again the problem is that the NNSs do not know whether or not an idiom is archaic. In learning English, however, the NNSs would find it hard to master collocation as there is virtually no practical rule governing its use. Only with a great deal of exposure to different written and oral texts can the NNSs master collocation. The problem usually arises when a NNS writes something which is grammatically correct, but collocationally incorrect; he or she will naturally be bewildered.
The NS who reads it may only say that he or she does not say or write it that way. Another problem is that different idioms are used in different English speaking countries, such as the UK, the US and Australia. As a result, idioms may not be mutually understandable even among native speakers of English. In addition, the same idiomatic expression in one English country may have a different meaning or not used in another English speaking country.
Summary of Suffering 5: As well as idioms, prepositions have to be memorized as units. Another difficulty is the following confusion: a some verbs have more than one preposition; b some verbs have more than one preposition and the meaning remains the same whichever preposition is used; c and some verbs and their prepositions can be separated by a word and the meaning remains the same, whereas some other verbs cannot be separated from their prepositions, and d some English dialects use some verbs with preposition, whereas some others without preposition.
At school, NNSs usually learn the medium formal language. One of the problems NNSs face is to identify formal and informal vocabulary items. The rule of thumb is formal vocabulary items consist of single, relatively long, words; whereas informal vocabulary may consist of two or more words. NNS learners of English usually fail to distinguish between formal and informal vocabulary items.
Standards General language In all Specific language Total Technical language Sum The language of language arts Person Character Protagonist The language of science Knee Kneecap Patella The language of social studies People Population Demograph ics The language of math In relation to this, when it comes to formal writing NNSs face the problem of inconsistency as in reality, NS writers are divided into two categories: 1 writers who like to use formal language, and 2 writers who do not like to use formal language, they are proponents of Plain English.
Most of the authors writing textbook on writing tend to suggest that learners use Plain English, so instead of low-frequency high sounding words learners should use high-frequency words.
But NNS learners frequently come across textbooks and journal articles using formal or outlandish vocabulary. So what should they follow? See discussion on prepositions above. The NNSs in this case become virtually hopeless in overcoming the problems of formal and informal vocabulary. NNS ears are simply not tuned to distinguish between natural-sounding and non-naturalsounding words.
The issue of formal and informal vocabulary is compounded by the fact that there are degrees of formality and natural versus formal vocabulary. They also encounter the contradiction between what they are supposed to write and the realities. In addition to formal and informal vocabulary, there are also general language, specific language, and technical language, for example the following: Suffering 7: Register As register has something to do with formal and informal use of language, it is included in the discussion of NNS sufferings.
Here is an overview of registers with specific examples for specific occasions Beare, The following are his definitions: Register: Type of language used when speaking to others Vertical register: Language used varying in degrees of formality Horizontal register: Jargon, slang, etc.
The vertical language registers are as follows MontanoHarmon. The characteristics are: o users are engaged in a mutually accepted structure of communications o it is formal o societal expectations accompany the users of this speech o it is professional discourse o Examples: when strangers meet, communications between a superior and a subordinate, doctor and patient, lawyer and client, lawyer and judge, teacher and student, counselor and client, conversation among colleagues, etc.
The characteristics of casual register are as follows: o it is colloquial, idiomatic and often full of slang and vulgarities o it is used to signal belonging to a given group, so this is an in-group language. One must be a member to engage in this register in-group members , e. It is reserved for close family members or intimate people, e. It is "private" language, sometimes it is full of codewords only known to the two.
However, skipping one or more levels is usually considered inappropriate and even offensive. In the table below, in the first relationship, a married couple, the wife uses the imperative form which would be inappropriate with a superior at work. In the last conversation, the man asks using an indirect question as a means of making his question more polite. The following is a comparison between correct and incorrect register: Correct Register Incorrect Register Wife to Husband - Hi honey, how was your day?
We got a lot done. And yours? Pass me that magazine, please. Wife to Husband - Hello, how are you today? Would you mind passing me the bread? Would you like some butter with your bread? Thank you very much Friend to Friend - Hello Mr.
May I ask you a question? How may I help you? Superior to Subordinate - at work - Hey Jack, what are you doing?! Get to work! Friend to Friend - Hi Charlie, can you give me a hand? What's up?
Superior to Subordinate at work - Excuse me Peter, we seem to be having a problem with the Smith account. We'd better get together to discuss the situation. Subordinate to Superior at work - Good Morning, Mr. Jones, may I ask you a question? Man Speaking to Stranger - Pardon me.
Do you think you could give me the time? I need a raise. Well, forget about it! Man Speaking to Stranger - You! Tell me where supermarket is. Summary of Suffering 7: For NNSs the distinctions may not be clear because both the grammar and the diction of the texts are correct. Another aspect which they should learn is appropriacy. This of course is extremely difficult as the NNS learners do not know the way of thinking of the NS; and so far as I know I have not seen a textbook teaching the way of thinking or the patterns of thinking of the NS as a guideline for NNSs.
Most of research on this topic deals with a comparative study of works written by NS writers and NNS writers. This is what Indonesian learners of English should know as Indonesian basically uses more passive than active construction. The problem is that way of thinking itself is subjective and it depends on the situation when the writer was writing his or her composition. See Kaplan for further information on this topic.
English reflexive verbs are verbs which describe words that show that the person who does the action is also the person who is also affected by it CALD 2nd ed.
But whose arm then? Different mental pictures. Word order. Indonesians would have to learn this kind of word order. Does it matter? To NNSs, they are just as good as any English words. The problem is when the NNSs write an essay using some pet peeves, for example, and send it for publication but those words are crossed out by the editor whose pet peeves are those words, the NNSs will simply get flustered because they do not know what is wrong.
The fact is that even NS writers do make mistakes. Summary of Suffering The fact that there are pet peeves is unfortunate for NNSs of English, especially if the NNS writers send their manuscript to NS editors who happen to have some pet peeves which are found in the manuscript.
Suffering Strong and Weak Expressions The use of finite verbs in English expresses strength, but the use of noun phrase is weak Einsohn, When an Indonesian has to write an essay in English, and he or she is supposed to use strong instead of weak expressions, the Indonesian would be perplexed. Awkward: The orchestra are tuning their instruments Preferable: The members of the orchestra are tuning their instruments.
If the singular sounds awkward, the sentence should be revised - The recent divestiture and rising costs are expected to affect profits. The following words are some examples of the many words which have no single-word equivalents in Indonesian: Satyriasis —abnormal sexual needs Uxoricide — wife-killing Nymphomania — compulsive sexual needs on the part of a female Callypegian — possessed of a shapely posterior Lewis, Mastophobia — the fear of breasts Lewis, Summary of Suffering No way can a NNS perceive whether a phrase sounds better, right, unnatural, or awkward.
The suffering is that the NNSs have to learn outlandish vocabulary, but on the other hand they also learn new things or concepts not available in Bahasa Indonesia which Indonesian people never think of.
In terms of remembering vocabulary, there are actually four kinds of vocabulary: a easy-to- remember vocabulary, b fairly-easy-to remember vocabulary, and c fairly-difficult-to-remember vocabulary, and d extremely-difficult-to-remember or slippery vocabulary.
In fact, it is not the learning of vocabulary that is difficult, it is the retaining of vocabulary we have learned that is most difficult. In other words, to make the vocabulary items we have learned stuck in our memory is the issue.
We will lose them easily if we do not use them frequently, receptively such as in listening and reading or productively such as in speaking and writing. The failure of learners of English as a foreign language is mostly attributable to the absence of frequent exposures to English and frequent opportunities to use it.
Such constructions exemplify the principle of attraction or proximity , under which the verb tends to take the form of the closest subject.
There are a number of ways of learning and remembering vocabulary. Many times we have to create our own pegs. It is a fact that we can remember better things which are humorous, ridiculous, stupid, or dirty; and we easily forget things which are mundane, common and have no salient features. Our brain somehow needs time to crunch the meaning of the word and put it in our long-term memory.
Instant explanation such as translation does not stay long in our memory. The review may involve the four skills: listening, speaking, reading and writing. The most difficult kind of words to remember is when a word deals with a concept we are not familiar with and so there is no single equivalent in L1.
In brief, the peg for remembering vocabulary items can be anything at all. There are still, however, hundreds of slippery words which defy association with anything, these words should be put in a context, noted down, and reviewed many times. There are a number of techniques of remembering vocabulary such as analyzing stem and its prefixes derived from Latin or Greek , using acrostic, rhymekeys, loci method, keyword method, image-name technique, chaining and some others which are not discussed here for technical reasons.
The peg here is the sound and it is also humorous. If we hold an opak in front of our eyes, we cannot see through it; so if something is opaque it means we cannot see through it, e. Unfortunately language is slippery and the absorbing capacity of our brain is limited, so learners have to be patient to learn and to review what has been learned so that they are not easily lost.
Without such a commitment, foreign language learning is definitely doomed to failure. A more interesting explanation is asking two students to come in front of the class and perform simulated boxing. All of these fulfill the laws above. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English Harlow: Pearson Education Park, D.
Is old-fashioned English still spoken anywhere in the world? Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Phelps, G. English idioms and English character. Second Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Anon. New York: Berkley Books. Beare, K. Introduction to Vertical Usage. Practical English Usage. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Cambridge Idioms Dictionary, English as spoken. Word Power Made Easy. In the area of writing the unsatisfactory result is also found.
If more research reports are read and studied, it is believed that lists can become longer. In the area of the components of language, the results of some studies show quite similar findings. Other study conducted by Fitri found out that there were many problems faced the English Department students in using conditional sentence.
Even after English is permitted to be introduced earlier at Elementary School as local content school subject, the result has not become better yet. Other research carried out to study the mastery of the learners in language components: phonology, morphology, syntax, and vocabulary also indicate the same results. Still other research that study other linguistic aspects of English revealed quite similar conclusion. The question that is worth of asking: is there something wrong with English teaching and learning practices in our country, Indonesia?
It is based on this question this paper is written. In JHS students learn English for three years. Other three years should be spent by the students in SHS. One or two more semesters to study English are obliged for nonEnglish department students, and around four years are demanded for English department students to deepen and broaden their knowledge and skills in English.
So, totally, an Indonesian student will spend at least six and half years to learn English. This is not included the time if they start learning English from Elementary School. The total number of years spent for learning English can be eight, night, or ten years, depending on how much time and at what grade they start learning English.
It is reasonable to hope that the result of learning English in such a long time is good. However, the hope is not always hand in hand with reality. Complaints on the result of learning English in Indonesia is still heard. Suyanto , for instance, In my opinion, teaching English in formal schooling in Indonesia is like flogging a dead horse.
The social situation is not particularly conducive learning English, as English is not spoken in society. It is true a number of TV programs are in English, but the subtitle makes the listener read it instead of listening to the dialogues. Sonodab - "Bluff" - BPM.
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Victory is not only a showcase of the New Orleans natives ability to control the mic but it is a wake up call to people who consider themselves lyricists. We're not saying that he's the savior but he's been working on the humble for years and Exhibit C opened him up to the world. World, meet Jay Electronica He makes the impossible seem possible. Dub and I wanted to share his soundtrack with those that were unfamiliar. Let's welcome back the lyricists to Hip- Hop.
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